What are the causes of backward agriculture in India on the eve of independence?

The backward agriculture in India on the eve of independence was primarily due to several interrelated factors. Colonial policies, such as the Permanent Settlement and oppressive land revenue systems, exploited farmers and led to widespread indebtedness. Additionally, a lack of investment in agricultural infrastructure, education, and modern farming techniques hindered productivity. Furthermore, socio-economic factors, including landlessness and caste-based inequalities, contributed to the stagnation of agricultural development during this period.