What fraction of slaves died on the middle passage?

Estimates suggest that approximately 15% to 25% of enslaved individuals died during the Middle Passage, the transatlantic journey from Africa to the Americas. This translates to roughly 1.2 to 2.5 million deaths out of the estimated 12.5 million Africans who were forcibly transported. Conditions on slave ships were horrific, with overcrowding, disease, and inadequate food and water contributing to the high mortality rate.