Who was responsible for initially questioning effectiveness of affirmative action?

The effectiveness of affirmative action was initially questioned by various scholars and critics, but a key figure in this discourse was economist Thomas Sowell. In his works, Sowell argued that affirmative action often led to unintended consequences, such as mismatches in academic environments and potential stigmatization of beneficiaries. This critique was part of a broader debate involving political figures, social scientists, and activists who examined the policies' impact on both individuals and society at large.