Was NOT a factor in ending the open range era?

The open range era was primarily ended by factors such as the growth of farming, the introduction of barbed wire, and severe winters that decimated cattle herds. However, the invention of the automobile was not a direct factor in ending the open range era, as it had little to do with cattle ranching practices or land use at the time. Instead, it played a more significant role in transportation and urban development in the following decades.