How can heredity be illustrated mathematically?

Heredity can be illustrated mathematically using tools such as Punnett squares, which visually represent the probability of offspring inheriting particular traits from their parents based on their genotypes. Additionally, the laws of inheritance, such as Mendel's laws, can be expressed through mathematical ratiOS, enabling predictions of trait distributions in future generations. Statistical methods, like the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, also provide a framework for understanding allele frequencies in populations over time.