What kept African Americans from achieving full citizenship?

African Americans faced systemic barriers to achieving full citizenship primarily due to institutionalized racism, discriminatory laws, and social segregation. Following the Civil War, despite the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised Black voters through tactics like literacy tests and poll taxes. Additionally, widespread social and economic inequalities, along with violence from groups like the Ku Klux Klan, further hindered their access to equal rights and opportunities. These obstacles persisted well into the 20th century, impeding the realization of full citizenship.