What forces contributed to the cohesion and disunity of Islamic empire?

The cohesion of the Islamic empire was driven by the unifying force of religion, as Islam provided a shared belief system and cultural identity among diverse populations. The establishment of a common legal framework through Sharia and Arabic as the lingua franca further strengthened this unity. However, disunity emerged from internal conflicts, such as political power struggles, sectarian divisions (notably between Sunni and Shia), and regional rivalries, which often undermined the central authority and led to fragmentation. Additionally, the vast geographic expanse of the empire made effective governance challenging, contributing to its eventual disintegration.